浪漫主義

古典Classic主義和浪漫Romantic主義是粗略而不準確的標籤，我們使用它們，就像使用它們的對等物文藝復興Renaissance和巴羅克Baroque一樣，是用來界定年代的上下限的，它使我們研究這些時期的音樂有了出發點。在音樂史的研究中，對比古典主義和浪漫主義之間的差異已經引起混亂。因這兩者並不完全是矛盾的，這兩個文化運動之間的連續性大於它們之間的任何差異。1770—1800年之間大量的音樂作品是一個連續體，它們使用共同的和聲進行harmonic progression、節奏rhythm和曲式form。霍夫曼Hoffmann認海頓Haydn和莫扎特Mozart的器樂是“浪漫主義”的，而貝多芬是“一位徹頭徹尾的浪漫主義作曲家”。

“浪漫主義”這一個詞在18世紀末到19世紀初期間成為一種時尚。它是諾瓦利斯Novalis （弗里德里希•馮•哈登貝格Friedrich von Hardenberg，1772-1801）從傳奇（roman）或長篇小說借用來的，它本來是從中世紀“傳奇”（romance）傳下來的一種體裁，是描寫英雄或英雄事跡的故事或詩歌，用拉丁語的一種方言“羅曼語”寫成。文學評論家弗里德里希•施萊格（Friedrich Schlegel 1772—1829）把古典詩歌與現代的浪漫主義詩歌區別開來，古典詩歌具有客觀上的美和在範圍與主題上的自我限制，具有普遍的適用性，而現代的浪漫主義詩歌超越了規則和限制，表現大自然的豐富性和人們不能滿足的渴望。但是，“浪漫主義”的理解也因人而異。舒曼Schumann在 1837年就驚嘆道：“我極其討厭‘浪漫主義’這個詞，雖然我一生中說過它的次數不超過十次。”
音樂中的浪漫主義與其說是一種風格特點的集合體，不如說是一種心理狀態，它使作曲家找到能夠表達諸如憂鬱、渴望或歡樂這些強烈情緒的個人道路。作曲家們只在一定程度內尊重曲式form和調性tonal關係的常規，但他們的想象力卻驅使他們越過曾經一度是合理的限制，去探討音響的新王國。

有些19世紀的作者認為，器樂是理想的浪漫主義藝術，因為它免去了歌詞的累贅，能夠完美地傳達純粹的情感。詠嘆調aria受限於它的歌詞，僅僅能夠表達因劇情發展而引起的情感。雖然作曲家喚起了人們的情感，但它是由外在的創作者即歌唱演員表演的角色所產生的。但是，器樂能夠表現作曲家自己的感情，而沒有特定情感的限制。內容沒有像愛情或忌妒這樣的名稱，可以僅僅是狂暴或不確定的渴望，或者甚至是“激情的真空”（借用夏多布里昂Chateaubriand的話），一個充實而年輕的心靈在尋求一個目標。柏遼茲Berlioz的《幻想交響曲》第一樂章的目標就是描寫這一點。有秩序的聲響ordered sound和節奏rhythm的器樂領域，並不反映具體的世界，而且這種獨立性允許音樂去喚起那些沒有同可用文字表達的概念連在一起的印象、思想和情感。哲學家阿圖爾•叔本華（Arthur Schopenhauer 1788—1860）認為，音樂是最內在的現實的化身，是以具體的、確定的形式對普遍的感情和衝動的直接表現。

雖然作曲家們高度關注器樂，但詩歌和文學也在他們的思想和事業中佔據中心的地位。例如，柏遼茲Berlioz、韋伯Weber、舒曼Schumann和李斯特Liszt就寫過有關音樂評論的卓越文章，而瓦格納Wagner也寫歌劇腳本、隨筆和哲學論文。舒伯特Schubert、舒曼Schumann、勃拉姆斯Brahms和胡戈•沃爾夫Hugo Wolf都在他們的藝術歌曲中使音樂和詩歌達到一種新的、緊密的結合，甚至他們的器樂曲都是由利德lied歌曲的抒情精神所控制的。
作曲家們把器樂作為首要的表達模式的理想，以及他們對19世紀文學的堅定取向，使他們會合在“標題音樂”program music的觀點之下。正如李斯特Liszt等人使用這個詞時所說的，標題音樂指的是與詩意的、描繪性的或敘述性的主題有關的器樂曲。它的目的是把整個主題吸收和改變成音樂，以便最後使作品包括一個“標題”program 但又超越標題。標題不必由音樂引起，甚至也不必先於音樂，有的時候它是事後加上去的。 當作曲家們在歌曲中把音樂和歌詞相結合時，他們十分注意器樂的補充，就像舒伯特Schubert的利德歌曲中有創造力的伴奏，或者像瓦格納Wagner樂劇music dramas中包圍著人聲的熱情洋溢的管弦樂。

【文本來源：Donald Jay Grout_ Claude Victor Palisca- 西方音乐史-人民音乐出版社（2010）（第六版） 第460-463頁】

ROMANTICISM

Classic and Romantic are rough and imprecise labels, yet we use them like their counterparts Renaissance and Baroque to define chronological boundaries and to give us starting points for discussing the music of these periods. Contrasting Classic with Romantic has caused confusion in the study of music history because the two are not entirely contradictory: the historical continuity between the two cultural movements is greater than any contrast. The great bulk of music written between 1770 and 1900 lies on a continuum, employing common conventions of harmonic progression, rhythm, and form. E. T. A. Hoffmann considered the instrumental music of Haydn and Mozart "roman-tic," and Beethoven, as we saw,"a completely romantic composer."

The term "romantic" enjoyed a vogue at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg, 1772-1801) borrowed the term from the Roman or novel, a genre descended from the medieval romance, a tale or poem about heroes or events written in one of the vernacular "Roman" dialects of Latin. The literary critic Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829) differentiated classic poetry-which was objectively beautiful, self-limited in scope and theme, and had universal validity-from modern romantic poetry, which transgressed rules and limits, and expressed the richness of nature and insatiable longing.

"Romantic," however, meant so many things to different people that in 1837 Schumann exclaimed, "I am heartily sick of the term 'romantic, though I have not spoken it ten times in my entire life." Romanticism in music is not so much a collection of style traits as a state of mind that enabled composers to seek individual paths for expressing intense emotions, such as melancholy, yearning, or joy. Composers respected conventions of form and tonal relations up to a point, but their imagination drove them to trespass limits, which had once seemed reasonable, and to explore new realms of sound.

Some nineteenth-century writers considered instrumental music the ideal Romantic art because, being free from the burden of words, it could perfectly communicate pure emotion. An aria is limited by its text and can only express the feelings that develop from a dramatic situation. Although the composer conjures up the emotion, it resides outside the creator in the character represented by the singer. But instrumental music can express the composer's own feelings without limitation to particular emotions. The content, without a name like love or jealousy, may simply be turbulence or indeterminate longing, or even the "vacuum of the passions" (le vague des passions) — Chateaubriand's phrase—a full, young heart seeking an object; Berlioz aimed to portray this in the first movement of his Symphonie fantastique. The instrumental domain of ordered sound and rhythm does not mirror the concrete world, and this independence allows music to evoke impressions, thoughts, and feelings that are not tied to concepts expressible in words. The philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) believed that music was the incarnation of the innermost reality, the immediate expression of universal feelings and impulses in con-crete, definite form.

Although composers held instrumental music in the highest regard, poetry and literature occupied a central place in their thoughts and careers. Berlioz, Weber, Schumann, and List, for example, wrote distinguished essays on music, and Wagner wrote his own librettos, essays, and philosophical treatises. Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, and Hugo Wolf attained a new and intimate union between music and poetry in their art songs, and even their instrumental music was dominated by the lyrical spirit of the lied.

The ideal of instrumental music as the premier mode of expression and the strong literary orientation of nineteenth-century composers converged in the concept of program music. As Liszt and others used the term, program music referred to instrumental music associated with poetic, descriptive, or narrative subject matter. It aimed to absorb and transmute the subject wholly into music, so that the resulting piece included a "program" but transcended it. The program did not necessarily inspire or even precede the music; sometimes it was imposed as an afterthought. When composers did combine music with words in song, they paid great attention to the instrumental complement, as in Schubert's inventive accompaniments to his lieder or in Wagner's exuberant orchestra enfolding the voices of his music dramas.


[Source: Donald Jay Grout_ Claude V. Palisca - A history of western music-6th Edition - Norton (2001) - 6th Edition, pp.542-545]

李斯特論音樂是直接表達的手段

音樂能夠體現感情，不必強迫它去同思想竟爭相結合，就像強迫大多數藝術，特別是語言藝術那樣。如果說音樂比其他媒介多一個好處的話，那就是一個人可以通過它說出自己心靈中的印象。這一點應歸功於它有高度的能力，使每一個人的內心衝動讓人知道，而無需理性的幫助。理性畢竟因它的手段差異而有所限制，而且僅能確定或描述我們的感情，不能直接以最大的強度來溝通它們。要完成這個任務，哪怕是粗略地，理性也必須尋求意象和對比。另一方面，音樂能夠立即展現感情的強度和表達力。正是感情的這種體現和容易理解的本質，使得事物能夠被我們的感官所理解。它像一支飛鏢、一道光線、一滴水氣、一個精靈，滲透進我們的靈魂中。 摘自《柏遼茲和他的〈哈羅德交響曲〉》（1855），弗朗茨•李斯特和卡羅琳•馮•維特斯坦因公主合著，譯文見 SR.第1版，第849頁。

【文本來源：Donald Jay Grout_ Claude Victor Palisca- 西方音乐史-人民音乐出版社（2010）（第六版） 第461頁】

FRANZ LISZT ON MUSIC AS DIRECT EXPRESSION

Music embodies feeling without forcing it to contend and combine with thought, as it is forced in most arts and especially in the art of words. If music has one advantage over the other media through which a person can represent the impressions of the soul, it owes this to its supreme capacity to make each inner impulse audible without the assistance of reason. Rea-son, after all, is restricted in the diversity of its means and is capable only of confirming or describing our affections, not of communicating them directly in their full intensity. To accomplish this even approximately, reason must search for images and comparisons. Music, on the other hand, presents at once the intensity and the expression of feeling. It is the embodied and intelligible essence of feeling, capable of being apprehended by our senses. It permeates them like a dart, like a ray, like a mist, like a spirit, and fills our soul. From Berlioz and His "Harold" Symphony (1855), by Franz List and Princess Caroline von Wittgenstein, adapted from the translation in SR, Ist ed., p. 849.

[Source: Donald Jay Grout_ Claude V. Palisca - A history of western music-6th Edition - Norton (2001) - 6th Edition, p.543]